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Background |
Related definitions |
Classifications of asthma |
Symptoms |
Childhood asthma |
Adult onset asthma |
Pregnancy and asthma |
Aspirin-induced asthma |
Severity of asthma |
Predisposition to asthma |
Diagnosis |
Treatment |
Types of inhalers |
Integrative therapies |
Prevention |
Author information |
Bibliography
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic, inflammatory lung disease. The air passages within the lungs are constantly swollen, restricting the amount of air allowed to pass through the trachea. Asthmatics have recurrent breathing problems and a tendency to cough and wheeze.According to the American Lung association, about 20 million Americans have asthma, which causes about 5,000 deaths each year.
Asthma is incurable, but many medications and changes in behavior may help manage the condition.
Allergic asthma occurs when allergens cause the airway to become inflamed.
When the airway becomes constricted during vigorous physical activity, the condition is known as exercise-induced asthma.
Cough-variant asthma is a chronic, persistent cough without shortness of breath.
Occupational asthma occurs as a result of a particular environment. Once the patient is out of the environment, symptoms gradually disappear.
Background
Asthma is a chronic, inflammatory lung disease. The air passages within the lungs are constantly swollen, restricting the amount of air allowed to pass through the trachea. Asthmatics have recurrent breathing problems and a tendency to cough and wheeze.According to the American Lung association, about 20 million Americans have asthma, which causes about 5,000 deaths each year.
Asthma is incurable, but many medications and changes in behavior may help manage the condition.
Allergic asthma occurs when allergens cause the airway to become inflamed.
When the airway becomes constricted during vigorous physical activity, the condition is known as exercise-induced asthma.
Cough-variant asthma is a chronic, persistent cough without shortness of breath.
Occupational asthma occurs as a result of a particular environment. Once the patient is out of the environment, symptoms gradually disappear.
Related definitions
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or chronic obstructive lung disease: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), also known as chronic obstructive lung disease, is a general term for diseases that damage the lungs. It is estimated that more than 16 million Americans have some form of COPD. The two main COPDs include chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Asthma is also considered a COPD.COPD develops over many years, and smoking tobacco is almost always the cause of the disease.
The most common symptoms of COPD are chronic coughing and shortness of breath. Individuals who have COPD may be more susceptible to colds and the flu. The heart may become enlarged because it is strained. In addition, many COPD patients may experience high blood pressure.
There is no cure for COPD. Treatment varies, depending on the specific condition. It can range from medication and oxygen supplementation to transplant surgery. Bronchodilators are commonly used to relax the bronchi muscles that can cause bronchospasms and restrict the airways. Bronchodilators are either short-acting or long-acting.
Emphysema: Nearly three million Americans have been diagnosed with emphysema, and it is estimated that millions more are in the early, asymptomatic stages of the disease.
The most common cause of emphysema is smoking tobacco. Tobacco smoke temporarily paralyzes the cilia (small hairs) the line the bronchial tubes. The cilia are designed to filter irritants out of the airways. However, when the cilia are paralyzed, irritants remain in the bronchial tubes and infiltrate the alveoli, inflaming the tissue and breaking down the elastic fibers.
A minority of patients develop emphysema as a result of low levels of alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAt). This protein protects the elastic fibers in the lungs from being destroyed by certain enzymes. Therefore, this hereditary condition causes progressive lung damage, which can result in emphysema.
Emphysema causes the air sacs in the walls of the lungs lose elasticity. Eventually, the walls stretch and break, which creates larger, less efficient air sacs. It becomes difficult for the patient to breathe. Common symptoms include chronic, mild cough, loss of appetite, weight loss and fatigue.
There is currently no cure for emphysema. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and preventing complications. Smokers are advised to abstain from smoking in order to prevent the symptoms from worsening. Medications often include bronchodilators, inhaled steroids, supplemental oxygen, protein therapy, antibiotics (for respiratory infections), lung volume reduction surgery and lung transplant. Pulmonary rehabilitation therapy is also available for patients.
Since smoking causes most cases of emphysema, the best prevention method is to abstain from smoking tobacco.
Dyspnea: Dyspnea is a term that describes difficulty breathing or shortness of breath. This is a common symptom of many medical disorders, especially COPD.
Airway obstruction: Airway obstruction describes partial or complete blockage of the airway passages to the lungs. The cause of this condition varies greatly. Possible causes include allergic reactions, infections, anatomical abnormalities, trauma and foreign substances (e.g. choking). An early sign of airway obstruction is agitation, which may cause individuals to cough suddenly. Signs of respiratory distress include labored, ineffective breathing and loss of consciousness if the obstruction is not removed or relieved.
Treatment for airway constriction depends on the underlying cause. If it is an allergic reaction, medication may be prescribed and the patient should avoid exposure to the allergen. Anatomical abnormalities may require surgery to open the airways. Infections may require antibiotics. If an adult is choking, the Heimlich maneuver should be performed.
Classifications of asthma
Asthma is classified as either allergic or non-allergic. Both conditions cause airway obstruction and inflammation that is partly reversible by medication. They also produce the same symptoms. The main difference, however, is their cause.Allergic (extrinsic) asthma: An allergic reaction triggers what is known as allergic asthma. Inhaled allergens like dust mites, mold spores, pollen and pet dander may trigger allergic asthma. It is the most common form of asthma, affecting more than 50% of asthma sufferers.
Non-allergic (intrinsic) asthma: Non-allergic asthma is not related to allergies and does not involve the immune system. Instead, factors like anxiety, stress, exercise, cold air, dry air, smoke, hyperventilation, viruses and other irritants trigger the disease.
Symptoms
Bronchospasm (abnormal contraction of the bronchi, resulting in airway obstruction).Coughing (constantly or intermittently).
Wheezing or whistling sounds when exhaling.
Shortness of breath or rapid breathing.
Chest tightness or chest pain.
Fatigue.
Infants may have trouble feeding and may grunt during suckling.
Childhood asthma
Nine million U.S. children, from newborns to 18-year-olds, have been diagnosed with asthma, according to a 2002 National Health Interview Survey.Asthma rates in children younger than five years old have increased more than 160% from 1980 to 1994. One study found a strong correlation between obesity and asthma, but no similar relationship between obesity and allergies. Researchers believe that asthma was the result of the increased physical exertion of the lungs in obese individuals.
Many children with asthma have what is known as allergic asthma. In such cases, exposure to allergens like dust mites, pollen, mold and animal dander may irritate the airways, causing even more constriction, as well as causing the production of excess mucus and inflammation of the airway passages.
Adult onset asthma
Asthma symptoms may appear at any time in life. Individuals who develop asthma as adults have what is known as adult onset asthma. It is possible to develop asthma at the age of 50 or later.Unlike children who usually experience intermittent symptoms, individuals with adult onset asthma are more likely to experience persistent symptoms.
The cause of adult onset asthma is unknown. However, some evidence suggests that allergy and asthma may be genetically inherited.
In addition, obesity appears to significantly increase the risk of developing asthma as an adult.
Pregnancy and asthma
Asthma is one of the most common, potentially serious medical problems that occur during pregnancy. According to some studies, asthma may complicate up to seven percent of all pregnancies.Researchers estimate that about one-third of pregnant women with asthma will experience increased symptoms during the pregnancy; another third will experience the same symptoms, while the last third will experience a lessening of symptoms.
Pregnant women with asthma have an increased risk of delivering prematurely or giving birth to an infant with low birth weight. In addition, pregnant women with asthma are more likely to experience hypertension (high blood pressure) or a related condition called pre-eclampsia (swelling, high blood pressure and kidney malfunction).
If asthma is not controlled, the mother has lower levels of oxygen in her blood. This may result in decreased oxygen in the fetal blood, which may also cause growth deficiencies or death in the fetus.
However, proper treatment and management of asthma symptoms helps reduce the risk of complications, according to research.
Aspirin-induced asthma
Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), like ibuprofen (Advil® or Motrin®), may cause asthma symptoms, nasal congestion, watery eyes and, occassionally, facial flushing and swelling in about 10% of asthmatics. Since sensitization and IgE production are not involved in aspirin-sensitive asthma, it is not considered an allergic reaction.In the body, these drugs inhibit the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) enzyme, which produces inflammation and fever. Their ability to inhibit the enzyme allows NSAIDs to reduce pain, inflammation and fever.
Inhibiting the enzyme also allows NSAIDs to clear the way for different enzymes that have adverse effects in some people. One of these enzymes triggers the release of chemicals that can cause the airways to swell and increase mucus production, leading to an asthma attack. The process is an unwanted side effect NSAIDs, not an immune-system reaction to NSAIDs.
Asthmatics and especially asthmatics who also have nasal polyps, are vulnerable to asthma as a side effect of aspirin and aspirin-like drugs.
Severity of asthma
Mild intermittent: Symptoms occur twice a week or less. Exacerbations are short and the intensity varies. Nighttime symptoms occur twice a month or less.Mild persistent: Symptoms occur more than twice a week but less than once a day. Exacerbations may affect daily activities. Nighttime symptoms occur more than twice a month.
Moderate persistent: Symptoms occur daily. Exacerbations occur twice a week or more. Nighttime symptoms occur more than once a week.
Severe persistent: Symptoms are constant and limit the individual's physical activities. Frequent exacerbations disrupt daily activities, and nighttime symptoms occur more than twice a week.
Predisposition to asthma
Infants or young children who wheeze and suffer from viral upper respiratory infections.Individuals with strong allergies.
Individuals with a family history of asthma and/or allergy.
Perinatal exposure to tobacco smoke and allergens.
Diagnosis
Spirometry is a noninvasive way to evaluate the air capacity of the lungs. Physicians are able to measure the volume of air exhaled before and after a bronchodilator (inhaler) is used.During this procedure, the spirometer measures the airflow when the patient exhales, comparing lung capacity to the average capacity for the individual's age and racial group. Then the patient inhales medicine from a short-acting bronchodilator. The doctor once again measures the patient's lung capacity. If there is an increase in capacity it is likely that the asthma symptoms can be controlled.
In addition, the physician should have the patient perform some form of physical activity to increase the breathing rate and check for changes in lung capacity (both with and without a bronchodilator).
Treatment
Long-term :Combined therapy medicine: Combined therapy involves both a controller (long-acting bronchodilator) and reliever (corticosteroid) medicine. This therapy is used to manage asthma symptoms for long-term.
Cromolyn sodium and nedocromil sodium: Cromolyn sodium (like Intal® and nedocromil sodium (like Tilade®) are used to help prevent the airways from swelling when they are exposed to asthma triggers. These inhaled non-steroids may also help prevent exercise-induced asthma attacks.
Immunotherapy: During immunotherapy (also known as allergy shots), the patient receives periodic injections, as determined by the allergist/immunologist, over the course of three to five years. The solutions in the injections contain the substances the individual is allergic to. The treatment helps the immune system tolerate the allergens and lessens the need for medications.
Peak flow meter: A peak flow meter is a portable device that measures airflow, or peak expiratory flow (PEF). When asthmatics blow into the device quickly and forcefully, the peak flow reading indicates how open the airways are. Patients should compare their daily peak flow recordings with their "personal best" recording. The device helps patients determine the severity of the asthma. It is enables patients to check their responses to treatment and monitor their treatment progress.
Inhaled corticosteroids: Inhaled corticosteroids (Aerobid®, Azmacort®, Beclovent®, Flovent®, Pulmicort® or Vanceril®) are used to prevent and reduce airway swelling, as well as decrease the amount of mucus in the lungs. These medications are generally considered safe when taken as directed.
Leukotriene modifiers: Leukotriene modifiers (like Accolate® or Singulair®) are a new type of long-term control medication. They help prevent airway inflammation and swelling, as well as decrease the amount of mucus in the lungs.
Long-acting beta agonists: Long-acting beta agonists, such as Serevent® (which is inhaled) may be taken with or without anti-inflammatories to help control persistent symptoms. Long-acting, inhaled beta agonists should not be used as a substitute for anti-inflammatories. This type of medicine may also prevent exercise-induced asthma. However, these medications cannot relieve symptoms quickly, and they should not be used to treat an acute attack. A short-acting, inhaled beta agonist should be used to treat acute symptoms.
Oral corticosteroids: Oral corticosteroids like (Aristocort®, Celestone®, Decadron®, Medrol®, Prednisone® or Sterapred®) are available in pill/tablet format for adults. Liquid corticosteroids (like Pediapred® or Prelone®) are available for children. These medications can be used short-term for severe asthma episodes or as long-term therapy for individuals who have severe asthma.
Trigger avoidance: Since asthma can be triggered by allergens, symptoms can be caused or aggravated by the environment. An allergist or immunologist can help patients recognize the allergens and irritants that trigger asthma attacks. Exposure to common irritants, including pollen, animal dander, mold spores and dust mites, may trigger asthma.
Eliminate potential food allergens, including dairy (milk, cheese and sour cream), eggs, nuts, shellfish, wheat (gluten), corn, preservatives and food additives (like dyes and fillers). Food allergies can be a contributing factor in immune imbalance triggering symptoms of asthma.
Short-term :
Oral beta agonists: Oral beta agonists (like Alupent®, Brethine®, Bricanyl®, Proventil®, Proventil® Repetabs®, Ventolin® or Volmax®) may be used to decrease acute symptoms that arise quickly. Oral beta agonists are available in pill, syrup and inhaled form.
Short-acting bronchodilators: Short-acting bronchodilators are also used for quick relief of asthma symptoms. They open airways by relaxing the muscles that tighten around airways during an asthma attack.
Short-acting beta agonists: Short-acting beta agonists (like Albuterol®, Brethaire®, Bronkosol®, Isoetharine®, Maxair®, Medihaler-Iso®, Metaprel®, Proventil®, Tornalate® or Ventolin®) may help relieve asthma symptoms quickly. These medications may also help prevent exercise-induced asthma. If these medications are taken daily, or if they are taken more than three times in a single day, the asthma may be worsening, or the inhaler may not be used correctly.
Theophylline: Theophylline (like Aerolate®, Elixophyllin®, Quibron-T®, Resbid®, Slo-bid®, T-Phyl®, Theolair®, Theo-24®, Theo-Dur®, Theo-X®, Uni-Dur® or Uniphyl®) may be used to treat persistent asthma symptoms and to prevent nighttime asthma. In order to be effective, theophylline must remain at a constant level in the bloodstream. If the level is too high, it can be potentially dangerous. A qualified healthcare provider will perform regular blood tests to ensure safety. Sustained release theophylline is not the preferred primary long-term control treatment, but it has been shown to be effective when taken with anti-inflammatories to control nighttime asthma attacks.
Pregnancy :
General: Many asthma medications are considered safe for pregnant patients because the risk of adverse effects appears to be less than the risk of uncontrolled asthma. Medications that have been used in pregnant women include inhaled bronchodilators, cromolyn sodium and beclomethasone, all of which have a local effect. Theophylline has also been used during pregnancy if the asthma is not adequately controlled by the other medications. Oral steroid medications, such as prednisone, should only be used when necessary for severe asthma during pregnancy. Consult a qualified healthcare professional before beginning any treatment.
Types of inhalers
Dry powder-inhaler: Dry-powder inhalers are the most common inhalers used today. This type of inhaler does not need a propellant. Instead, the individual inhales the medicine so it can reach the lung. Children, people with severe asthma and people suffering from acute attacks may be unable to produce enough airflow to use these inhalers successfully.Metered-dose inhaler: The most efficient way to get asthma medication into the airways is with a metered-dose inhaler (MDI). When used properly, about 12-14% of the medication is inhaled deep into the lungs with each puff of the MDI. They are especially important for delivering quick relief medication - short-acting beta agonists - that relieve an acute asthma attack. MDIs are also used to deliver some long-term control medications, including anti-inflammatories and long-acting bronchodilators, which are taken routinely to manage asthma symptoms. An MDI is especially recommended for use with inhaled steroids because it reduces the amount of drug dispersed into the mouth, which reduces the risk of side effects.
Metered-dose inhalers are designed to release a pre-measured amount of medication into the lungs. There are several different types, but in general, they all have a chamber that holds the medication and a propellant that turns the medication into a fine mist. A button is pushed to force the medication out through the mouthpiece.
Medication that is inhaled acts more quickly than medication taken by mouth. It also causes few adverse effects because the medication goes directly to the lungs and not to other parts of the body.
If an MDI is not used correctly, symptoms may persist or worsen. Individuals who have trouble using the device correctly may use a spacer to help them get the medication they need. Spacers are attached to the mouthpiece, and they hold the discharged, pre-measured medication in a chamber until the patient breathes in. Spacers are recommended for young children and older adults who have trouble coordinating breathing and activating the MDI.
Nebulizer: A nebulizer is an electrical device that sends medicine directly into the mouth by a tube (or mask in children). This method does not require hand-breath coordination. The patient puts the prescribed amount of medication into the tube, and then places the tube in the mouth (or places the mask over the child's nose and mouth). Then the patient breathes normally until all of the medication is gone.
Integrative therapies
Good scientific evidence :Boswellia : Boswellia has been proposed as a potential chronic asthma therapy. Future studies are needed to assess the long-term efficacy and safety of boswellia and to compare the efficacy of boswellia to standard therapies. Boswellia should not be used for the relief of acute asthma exacerbations. Boswellia is generally believed to be safe when used as directed, although safety and toxicity have not been well studied in humans. Avoid if allergic to boswellia or similar herbs or if pregnant or breastfeeding.
Choline : Choline is possibly effective when taken orally for asthma. Choline supplements seem to decrease the severity of symptoms, number of symptomatic days and the need to use bronchodilators in asthma patients. There is some evidence that higher doses of 3 grams daily might be more effective than lower doses of 1.5 grams daily. Choline is generally regarded as safe and appears to be well-tolerated. Pregnant or breastfeeding women should not take doses that exceed adequate intake (AI) levels.
Coleus : There is a lack of sufficient data to recommend for or against the use of coleus in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Preliminary data appears to be promising. However, larger, randomized, controlled trials are needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of coleus in bronchial asthma. Coleus is generally regarded as safe, as very few reports have documented adverse effects. However, only a few short-term trials have assessed its safety in a small sample size of patients. Avoid if allergic to Coleus forskohlii and related species or with bleeding disorders. Avoid if pregnant or breastfeeding.
Ephedra : Ephedra contains the chemicals ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are bronchodilators (expand the airways to assist in easier breathing). It has been used and studied to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in both children and adults. Other treatments such as beta-agonist inhalers (for example, albuterol) are more commonly recommended due to safety concerns with ephedra or ephedrine. However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has collected thousands of reports of serious toxicity linked to ephedra (including over 100 deaths). Ephedra products are banned from dietary supplements because of serious health risks, including heart attack, heart damage, breathing difficulties and fluid retention in the lungs. Avoid ephedra if pregnant or breastfeeding.
Psychotherapy : Family psychotherapy may slightly improve wheezing and thoracic gas volume for children with asthma, according to several studies.
Yoga : Multiple human studies report benefits of yoga (such as breathing exercises), when added to other treatments for mild-to-moderate asthma (such as standard drug therapy, diet, or massage). Better research is needed before a firm conclusion can be drawn.
Unclear or conflicting scientific evidence :
Acupressure : Preliminary research suggests that patients with chronic asthma who receive acupressure may experience improved quality of life. Further well-designed studies are needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.)
Ayurveda : There is early evidence that daily supplementation with gum resin of Boswellia serrata, known in Ayurveda as Salai guggal, may reduce dyspnea (shortness of breath), rhonchi, and the number of attacks in bronchial asthma.
Another herb, Devadaru (Cedrus deodara), may have antispasmodic effects and reduce symptoms in bronchial asthma, particularly for patients with shorter histories of asthma and lower frequencies of attacks. Further research is needed in this area before a recommendation can be made.
Black tea : Research has shown caffeine to cause improvements in airflow to the lungs (bronchodilation). However, it is not clear if caffeine or tea use has significant clinical benefits in people with asthma. Better research is needed in this area before a conclusion can be drawn.
Butterbur : Historically, butterbur has been used to treat asthma. Pre-clinical studies report anti-inflammatory and leukotriene inhibitory properties, which may lead to clinical effects. Initial human research suggests possible benefits. However, controlled trials with adequate sample sizes are necessary in order to clarify whether there are true benefits in humans.
Chiropractic : Several studies report the effects of chiropractic spinal manipulative therapy on breathing indices and quality of life in children and adults with asthma. Results are variable, and in the studies with positive results, mostly subjective but not objective (lung function test) changes are reported. Due to methodological problems and variable results, no clear conclusions can be drawn in this area.
Green tea :Research has shown caffeine to cause improvements in airflow to the lungs (bronchodilation). However, it is not clear if caffeine or tea use has significant benefits in people with asthma. Better research is needed in this area before a conclusion can be drawn.
Hypnotherapy, hypnosis : Preliminary research for the use of hypnosis for the management of asthma symptoms does not provide clear answers. Anxiety associated with asthma may be relieved with hypnosis. Additional research is needed before a firm conclusion can be drawn.
Lactobacillus acidophilus : Lactobacillus acidophilus has been suggested as a possible treatment for asthma. However, further research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be made.
Lycopene : Laboratory research suggests that lycopene, like other carotenoids, may have antioxidant properties. It has been suggested that antioxidants may be helpful in the prevention of asthma that is caused by exercise. There is limited, poor-quality research in this area, and further evidence is needed before a firm conclusion can be made.
Massage : Promising initial evidence suggests that massage therapy may improve lung function in children with asthma. Additional research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn.
Meditation : Preliminary research of transcendental meditation® for asthma reports benefits. However, due to unclear design or study description, these results cannot be considered definitive.
Sahaja yoga, which incorporates meditation techniques, may have some benefit in the management of moderate to severe asthma. Further studies of meditation alone are needed before any a firm conclusion can be drawn.
Melatonin : Based on preliminary research, melatonin may improve sleep in patients with asthma. Further studies that evaluate the long-term effects of melatonin on airway inflammation and bronchial hyper-responsiveness are needed before a firm conclusion can be made.
Omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha linolenic acid : Several studies in this area do not provide enough reliable evidence to form a clear conclusion, with some studies reporting no effects, and others finding benefits. Because most studies have been small without clear descriptions of design or results, the results cannot be considered conclusive.
Perilla : Preliminary evidence suggests some benefit of perilla oil for symptoms of asthma. Further clinical trials are required before a definitive conclusion can be reached.
Physical therapy : Chest physical therapy and physiotherapy breathing retraining have been studied in both children and adults to improve quality of life and improve lung function in severe and acute asthma. Early evidence is mixed. Studies often include combination treatment with drug therapy or are not well-designed, which make it difficult to assess the magnitude of benefit, if any, of physical therapy alone. More research is warranted.
Pycnogenol® : Pycnogenol® may offer clinical benefit to both children and adults with asthma. Additional study is needed before a strong recommendation can be made.
Relaxation therapy : Preliminary studies of relaxation techniques in individuals with asthma report a significant decrease in asthma symptoms, anxiety and depression, along with improvements in quality of life and measures of lung function. Further large trials in humans are needed to confirm these results.
Selenium : Preliminary research reports that selenium supplementation may help improve asthma symptoms. Further research is needed to confirm these results.
Tylophora : Methodologically weak trials make extrapolation to clinical practice difficult. Available studies of Tylophora for asthma show conflicting results. Therefore, efficacy remains unproven.
Vitamin B6 : Preliminary research suggests that children with severe asthma might have inadequate pyridoxine status. Theophylline, a prescription drug used to help manage asthma, seems to lower pyridoxine levels. Studies of pyridoxine supplementation in asthma patients taking theophylline yield conflicting results. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be drawn.
Vitamin C : It has been suggested that low levels of vitamin C (or other antioxidants) may increase the risk of developing asthma. The use of vitamin C for asthma has been studied since the 1980s (particularly exercise-induced asthma), although the evidence in this area remains inconclusive. Additional research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn.
Fair negative scientific evidence :
Evening primrose oil : Small studies do not show evening primrose oil to be useful in the treatment of asthma. Further research is needed to confirm this conclusion.
Vitamin E : There is preliminary evidence that vitamin E does not provide benefits in individuals with asthma.
Strong negative scientific evidence :
L-arginine : Although it has been suggested that arginine may be a treatment for asthma, studies in humans have actually found that arginine worsens inflammation in the lungs and contributes to asthma symptoms. Therefore, taking arginine by mouth or by inhalation is not recommended in people with asthma.
Prevention
Avoidance of known allergens: Asthma is strongly associated with allergies, and exposure to allergens can worsen asthma symptoms.Avoidance of secondhand smoke: Children are especially susceptible to developing asthma or experience a worsening in symptoms if they are exposed to secondhand smoke. Children breathing secondhand smoke are more likely to suffer from bronchitis and pneumonia, ear infections, coughing and wheezing, and more frequent and severe asthma attacks.
Author information
Natural Standard is an international research collaboration that aggregates and synthesizes data on complementary and alternative therapies. Using a comprehensive methodology and reproducible grading scales, information is created that is evidence-based, consensus-based, and peer-reviewed, tapping into the collective expertise of a multidisciplinary Editorial Board. The mission of this collaboration is to provide objective, reliable information that aids clinicians, patients, and healthcare institutions to make more informed and safer therapeutic decisions. Natural Standard is widely recognized as one of the worlds premier sources of information in this area.Bibliography
American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. www.aaaai.org.
American Academy of Family Physicians. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. familydoctor.org.
American Lung Association. Epidemiology & statistics Unit, Research and Program Services. Trends in Asthma Morbidity and Mortality. May 2005. www.lungusa.org.
Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. Asthma. www.aafa.org.
Centers for Disease Control. Surveillance for Asthma - United States, 1960-1995, MMWR. 1998; 47 (SS-1). www.cdc.gov.
MayoClinic.com. Asthma. www.mayoclinic.com.
National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. www.nhlbi.nih.gov.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Asthma and its Environmental Triggers. www.niehs.nih.gov.
Natural Standard: The Authority on Integrative Medicine. www.naturalstandard.com. Copyright © 2008.
Dey AN, Schiller JS, Tai DA. Summary health statistics for U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2002. Vital Health Stat 10. 2004 Mar;(221):1-78. View Abstract
Related Terms
Adult onset asthma, allergic asthma, allergist, asthmatics, boswellia, breathing problems, bronchodilator, bronchospasm, choline, coleus, corticosteroids, cough-variant asthma, dry-powder inhaler, ephedra, exercise-induced asthma, extrinsic asthma, immunologist, inhaler, intrinsic asthma, leukotriene modifiers, long-acting beta agonists, MDI, metered-dose inhaler, nebulizer, non-allergic asthma, occupational asthma, oral beta agonists, peak flow meter, psychotherapy, short-acting bronchodilators, short-acting beta agonists, spirometer, spirometry, theophylline, trigger avoidance, wheezing, yoga.
Natural Standard Bottom Line Monograph, Copyright © 2009 (www.naturalstandard.com). Commercial distribution prohibited. This monograph is intendedfor informational purposes only, and should not be interpreted as specific medical advice. You should consult with a qualified healthcare provider before making decisions about therapies and/or health conditions.
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